The Unsung Heroes, a History of Print
By Dr. Jerry Waite
University of Houston College of Technology
© 2001
History of Printing from unique perspectives
Who’s who among printers
Print and Religion
Print in America and Texas
Print and Censorship
Set in relief along the perimeter of the UH Honors College building are the names of many of the most important contributors to human knowledge. Copernicus, Newton, Jesus, and Moses are included.
Among them are Gutenberg, Dickens, Whitman, Aldus Manutius, Erasmus, Baskerville, and Franklin.
What do these men share in common? They were all printers.
Everyone knows about Benjamin Franklin
Even though he was known as an electrician, inventor, statesman, and even a sort of playboy, he was firmly grounded with his "author."
In his youth, he composed his own epitaph:
The body of
B. Franklin, Printer
(Like the Cover of an Old Book
Its Contents torn Out
And Stript of its Lettering and Gilding)
Lies Here, Food for Worms.
But the Work shall not be Lost;
For it will (as he Believ'd) Appear once More
In a New and More Elegant Edition
Revised and Corrected
By the Author.
Charles Dickens
"
…the printer is the only product of civilization necessary to the existence of free men."Erasmus
Known as the greatest classical scholar of the Renaissance.
Translated, wrote, and designed books.
Set the standard for "classical" book page margins still used today.
"twice as wide on the top as at the inside, twice as wide at the outside as the top and twice as wide on the bottom as on the side."
Walt Whitman
Not only an author, but a printer and editor as well.
He did much of the typesetting and printing of his singular work "Leaves of Grass" himself.
Aldus Manutius
Was the world’s first "publisher."
Translated and printed Greek and Roman classics.
Invented italic type–so that more text could fit into a small space (pocketbooks).
The firm that wrote the original PageMaker program named itself after Aldus.
Baskerville
Name is synonymous with typestyle design.
Was printer to the University of Cambridge.
Printed a famed edition of the Bible in 1763, an edition of Horace in 1762, as well as other editions of Latin authors.
Who’s who among printers
Although many pre-millennium publications credited Johann Gutenberg as the most important individual of the second millennium, he did not invent printing. Rather, he synthesized concepts from many sources into a
workable printing process.Thomas Edison
Published his own newspaper on a train and sold them at each stop.
Invented the mimeograph machine–later sold to a Midwestern manufacturer, A.B.Dick. A.B.Dick became a major manufacturer of printing equipment.
Paul Revere
In addition to being a silversmith, he engraved plates and printed currency. He’s known as the father of American banknote engraving.
John Brown Russwurm
First African-American college graduate in the US.
Published the first US newspaper for African-Americans.
Mark Twain
As a reporter, he set type, did page layout, and ran a press.
Lost a fortune on an unsuccessful competing product to the Linotype.
Wright Brothers
Ran a newspaper
Built one of their newspaper presses themselves.
Frank Lloyd Wright
Designed and helped print "The House Beautiful," his work on architecture.
Virginia Woolf
Not only an early feminist, literature critic, and writer, she and her husband operated Hogarth Press which published her works as well as those of other contemporary English authors.
Thomas Nast
Created the images for Santa Claus, Republican Elephant, the Democratic Donkey, and Uncle Sam.
His hatred and vitriol against Roman Catholics was so severe that we now use the word "nasty" to describe distasteful words or actions.
Willis Carrier
Invented air conditioning as an unexpected side-effect of a dehumidifier for a New York printer.
Thomas Borden
Not only invented canned milk, he also began Texas’ first newspaper, The Telegraph and Texas Register in San Felipe de Austin in 1835.
Located near my home two miles east of Sealy on Interstate 10.
Later moved to Houston
Official newspaper of the Texas Republic
Finally closed-down in 1877.
Print and Religion
Over the centuries, printers and the Church have had sometimes symbiotic and sometimes uneasy relationships. However, the two have always been somehow related.
Before Christ
The first printers would today be known as graffiti "taggers."
Hebrew scriptures mentioned scribes among the honored professions–and also as privileged hypocrites!
In fact, scripture is a derivative of scribe!
By 200 BC, parchment came into widespread use when a method of refining sheepskin was invented.
The Roman baths contained libraries full of books that had been transcribed by hand.
Scribes were plentiful and, as a result, books were available at an acceptable cost.
After Christ
The spread of the Buddhist religion in China in the second century can be attributed to the invention of strong and inexpensive paper (contrasted to fragile papyrus or expensive vellum (animal skins)) and the practice of making many copies of sacred texts encouraged mechanical means of reproduction.
In the East
In 105 AD, Ts’ai Lun, a Chinese Monk, invented paper.
In the seventh century, Chinese Buddhist Monks experimented with the duplication of images through rubbings and stencils–forerunner of block printing.
By 972, the sacred Buddhist scriptures (the Tripitaka), comprised of more than 130,000 pages, were printed entirely from wood blocks.
Movable type was also invented in China by 1041 AD by Pi Cheng. However, the plethora of characters in the Chinese language discouraged further innovation in the process. However, the Koreans, who had only 100 characters, were casting metal type by 1403 AD.
Although the invention of movable type is often attributed to Gutenberg, he did NOT invent it. Instead, what he provided was a method of casting type with such precise size tolerances that they could be held together by pressure applied to the edges.
In Europe
During the rise of printing in Asia, the West was experiencing a long period characterized by virtually nothing happening–the dark ages. Of course, people were born, worked and died, but no real learning, inventions, or improvements occurred.
Working diligently during this time were the descendents of the scribes–monks in scriptoriums laboriously hand-copied classic manuscripts. Without the church, the entire knowledge-base of the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians would have been lost.
By way of example, a single copy of the Bible would have taken about five years to copy. In today’s dollars, it would be worth about $200,000!
Only the educated clergy and scholars–supported either by the church or by the government–could have access to knowledge.
The monks did not jealously guard their treasure-trove of knowledge. They shared it with those who were interested, and the first universities began. However, few were interested, because most people were illiterate.
There was general agreement by the clergy and the royalty that people should not be allowed access to books–religious or secular–because the ordinary person couldn’t understand what the books contained. Of course, this was mostly true, because most people couldn’t read. However, the REAL reason was books=knowledge=power. The rulers did not want to share their power! For this reason, scriptures and other documents were not translated into the vernacular. Instead, they were produced in either Greek or Latin, languages readily understood by some clergy and royalty.
In 1298, Marco polo reported that he had witnessed the printing of paper money in China. By 1309, paper was being used in England.
In the fourteenth century, John Wycliffe dared to translate the Bible into English. He said "No man is so rude a scholar but that he might learn the words of the Gospel according to his simplicity." Secular and ecclesiastic authorities didn’t agree.
They believed that the common man, if he could indeed read, was not sufficently "schooled" to properly interpret what he read.
Wycliffe was brought to trial numerous times, but was never executed due to the influence of powerful friends.
Although Wycliffe died a natural death in 1384, his body was dragged from his grave four decades later and burned by secular court order.
By 1423, the first European woodblock print was produced. It depicted St. Christopher carrying the infant Christ.
In the mid 1400’s Johann Gensfleisch Gutenberg succeeded in developing a workable way to precisely cast and assemble metal characters.
Among the first works he produced was a (gasp!) papal indulgence issued by Pope Nicholas V to raise money for the Crusades!
You know how those pesky indulgences led to Martin Luther’s rebellion!
Contrary to popular thought, Gutenberg did NOT print the Gutenberg Bible–although he started its production. Unfortunately, Gutenberg defaulted on a loan from Johann Fust. Therefore, Fust and his colleague Schoeffer finished the project in 1455.
The beauty of the Gutenberg Bible (only the black part was printed, the illuminations and rubrications were done by hand) made it very popular and an acceptable alternative to hand-written Bibles.
By way of comparison, in today’s dollars, a Gutenberg Bible would have cost about $20,000–a tenfold decrease in comparison to the cost of a hand-copied version.
Ironically, the uniformity of the copies of Gutenberg’s Bible led many superstitious people of the time to equate printing with Satan because it seemed to be magical. Printers’ apprentices became known as the "printer’s devil."
In Paris, Fust was charged as a witch. Although he escaped the Inquisition, other printers did not.
Also, ironically, the acceptance of the Gutenberg Bible put to death an entire cottage industry that had grown up around the medieval monks/scribes. Rooms of monks were put out of work in perhaps the first technological layoffs.
Between 1450—1500 more than 6000 works were printed.
In Northern Europe, printers produced mostly religious works, such as Bibles, Psalters, and Missals.
Southern European printers, in contrast, printed chiefly secular works–predominantly revived Greek and Roman classics.
Aldus Manutius, in Italy, first brought scholarship to the masses. He was, in effect, the first publisher.
Produced PORTABLE editions–known as "pocketbooks"–of Greek and Latin classics.
To fit so much information in a book-sized (rather than wheel-barrow-sized) document, he invented Italic type!
In the early 1500’s, Erasmus of Rotterdam, a printer and professor at Cambridge University, became an advocate for translating scripture into the vernacular.
William Tynsdale, a student of Erasmus’ writings, became appalled at how little the English clergy–let alone the peasants–knew about the scriptures.
He argued forcefully for a translation, but was forced to leave England.
Tynsdale went to Germany where he met with Martin Luther. By this time, the printing press was well established in Germany.
Both Luther and Tynsdale made good use of the technology.
Luther’s theses, of course, were reprinted many times leading inevitably to the Protestant Reformation.
Tynsdale actually printed the first English-language Bible in Germany!
Once Tynsdale completed his English-language Bibles, he smuggled them back into England. Church authorities hunted them down and burned them. Only two copies survived.
On October 6, 1536, Tynsdale was strangled and burned at the stake. "Lord, open the King of England’s eyes!" he shouted at his death.
Of course, King Henry VIII broke with Rome and eventually ordered a English Bible placed in every church in his realm.
The Bibles were often full of errors —for example, the "Wicked Bible" of 1632 left out the word "not" from the seventh commandment: Thou shalt commit adultery!
In 1611, King James I ordered a new "authorized" translation printed–a translation still used by many Protestant churches.
Print and Catholicism vs print and Protestantism
From the very beginning, protestant churches depended on print to "get the Word out." In particular, Luther could not have placed his emphasis on the "Word" rather than "tradition" without the availability of Bibles. It can be said that the history of Protestantism and print are inextricably woven.
John Wesley’s Oxford University days in the 1730’s were strongly influenced by printed works of classical literature and philosophy as well as contemporary religious works.
In contrast, Catholic hierarchy temporarily retained its strong emphasis on tradition and interpretation.
The inquisition claimed the lives of printers whose work was thought to be "of the devil."
However, eventually even Catholics recognized the importance of print in evangelization.
By way of example, the founder of the congregation I studied under and worked for for 24 years, St. John Bosco, taught his orphan-students printing so that printed works could be used to educate the children of the poor. In effect, he was an author, printer, and publisher.
Between 1868 and 1884, he and his students published over 300,000 copies of the Italian Literary Classics. He also printed Latin and Greek Classics textbooks, dictionaries, Catholic Readings, and other educational publications.
John Bosco and his students invented and displayed at the Turin Italy Expo (18)84 a "pulp to paper to print machine" that was a complex assembly of several state of the art machines. Rags and wood pulp were fed in at one end and at the other a completed book was delivered.
The high-school I attended, Don Bosco Technical Institute, in Rosemead California, has a full-wall mosaic depicting the importance of technology. At the far left of the mural is a representation of the cross of the risen Christ, the Word of God. Supporting the cross, as its foundation, is a printing press (show).
Print in America and Texas
In America
In the early 1500’s, printing followed the conquistadors from Spain to the Americas.
The first Bishop of Mexico, Juan de Zumarraga, brought printer Juan Pablos from Seville to aid in converting the Indians. Juan was the first American printer.
In effect, the history of print in the "new world" is closely connected to the christianizing of the natives.
Juan Pablos’ son-in-law, Pedro Ocharte, published in 1571 a large print of the "Virgin of the Rosary" that included verse that was thought heretical by the Inquisition. He was imprisoned and his equipment confiscated.
By 1600, nine presses were operating in Mexico.
It wasn’t until 1628 that Elizabeth Glover established the first press in the English colonies–the Cambridge Press in Massachusetts Bay.
Her press operator was Stephen Day, a locksmith
Their first book was the "Whole Booke of Psalms," more commonly known as the "Bay Psalm Book."
Once again, history shows the close connection to print and religion.
Print and the American Revolution
Stamp Tax can be argued to be the "straw that broke the colonists’ back."
It was a tax on paper, and had nothing to do with printing.
It was, of course, a type of censorship of the press.
In Texas
The first printer in Texas was Samuel Bangs, who, in 1815 set up his press on Galveston Island.
He was captured by authorities and was sent to Mexico City where he was forced to become that country’s public printer.
The first newspaper in Texas, The Telegraph and Texas Register, was started on October 10, 1835 in San Felipe de Austin (now at Interstate 10 and the Brazos River near Sealy, Texas).
Interestingly, its founders were Gail Borden, Thomas Borden (both of condensed milk fame) and Joseph Baker.
It became the official organ of the Republic of Texas.
Santa Anna’s force compelled the paper to shut down in March 1836.
The press was moved to Harrisburg (now the Houston area), was captured by the Mexicans and thrown into Buffalo Bayou (the reason for Houston’s motto "Bayou City").
Gail Borden bought a new press and set up shop in Columbia, which was the capitol of the Republic.
The paper survived through the Republic of Texas and into Texas statehood in 1845.
The paper eventually became known as the Telegraph and went out of business in 1877.
Soon after Texas was admitted to the Union–in 1847–another very influential Texas paper was born in Brenham. Of course, I’m referring to your own United Methodist Reporter. (Refer to "Getting the word out.")
Under several names, your paper fought against alcoholism and corruption, demanded that the government protect Texas frontiers, argued for the education of women, and supported freedom and education for emancipated slaves.
Over the years, your paper has been decried as too liberal and too conservative. To my way of thinking, a paper that riles everybody must be a good one!
Print and Censorship
Both internal (self-imposed based on principles or fear) and external (imposed by fear of church or government sanctions).
Internal censorship allows an individual or organization to choose what to say or not say.
Fear of being politically incorrect, of being labeled politically incorrect, of being "insensitive," or simply being thought wrong may lead people to not say what they truly believe.
External censorship
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. —The First Amendment.
Print is, in effect, the only industry particularly protected by the Constitution. There is no "freedom of the transportation industry!"
Contrary to popular belief, the First Amendment, adopted in 1791, was not a reaction to the colonists’ reaction to the appointed royal government, but to the actions of elected assemblies. These elected groups oftentimes attempted, in a democratic way, to enforce their views on others.
The first criminal freedom-of-the-press trial in what is now the United States involved Pennsylvania’s first printer, William Bradford. His offense? Reprinting copies of the colony’s charter. You see, William Penn had ordered in 1683 that the laws of the colony were not to be printed! Bradford’s press was seized and he spent over a year in jail.
In 1735, John Peter Zenger was brought to trial for repeatedly printing–not for writing–articles in his New York Weekly Journal that opposed the policies of the colonial governor, William Cosby. Eventually, Zenger was arrested for libel. At his kangaroo trial, his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, brilliantly convinced the jurors that the controversial articles were true and therefore could not be considered libelous. This was a landmark freedom of the press case.
This case, perhaps more than any popular sentiment, led to the establishment of freedom of the press in the United States.
However, it hasn’t stopped the government from trying to suppress freedom of the press:
Alien and Sedition Acts: crime to publish and false, scandalous and malicious writing against Congress or President. "False" is not a problem. "Scandalous" certainly is.
John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, tried to prevent printers from producing documents urging slaves to insurrection. Failing in this attempt, he proposed a bill to make it illegal for postmasters to deliver such documents. That also failed.
So called "moral" groups tried to ban books such as Whitman’s Leaves of Green because it mentioned prostitution and Huckleberry Finn because it contained poor grammar and low grade morality.
In more recent times, the government has attempted to require publishers to provide "equal time" to counter the influence of media personalities such as Rush Limbaugh.
Whether one is in favor of–or opposed to–an idea, it is imperative that we as printers always resist censorship.
Today, many people rightly believe that we are awash in filth and that lyrics and the like must be "cleaned-up." On the surface, that appears to be a worthy goal. However, what if "those" sorts of folks take over the government. Do you want them infringing on your right to publish Methodist teachings?